![]() ![]() iPhone wallpapers iPhone ringtones Android wallpapers Android ringtones Cool backgrounds iPhone backgrounds Android. Start your search now and free your phone. ![]() Repeat the same process to add more custom ringtones to the default ringtones list. Search free star trek voyager Ringtones on Zedge and personalize your phone to suit you. Your selected MP3 track will now be your custom ringtone. You will see a list of music files stored on your phone.If your phone has several file/media manager apps, select Music Player from the popup box. Tap the Add button to launch the media manager app.You will see a list of the phone’s default ringtones. Go to Settings > Sound > Device ringtone.Check whether the music tracks appear in the Music Player app.mp3-file you want to download, then tap Download. When the ringtone is finished exporting, you can assign the ringtone (it is automatically saved in the ringtone section). ![]() Or, tap Cancel to return to the song so you can shorten it. If the ringtone is longer than 30 seconds, tap Continue to have GarageBand shorten the ringtone automatically. There are currently no reviews for this ringtone. STAR TREK Ringtone Info Info Ratings & Reviews (0) Review Summary. English Português Español Français Deutsch. Enter a name for the ringtone, then tap Export. RINGTONES iPHONE RINGTONES IMAGES THEMES VIDEOS 0.In the My Songs browser, tap Browse, tap Select, then tap the project you unzipped.įor later iOS versions: Press & hold the file, then tap the Share button, then tap Ringtone.Open GarageBand on your iPhone, iPad, or iPod touch.So you need to use an App like GarageBand on your iPhone or iPad to create a ringtone for your Apple device and follow these steps below. Think for yourself: Topics that boil down to "Should I watch.", "Will I like.", "Change my view on.", "Does anyone else.", or "Tell me what to think" are not contributing anything to the community.Apple doesn't permit direct ringtone installations from online sources. Meta: Send a modmail instead of making public posts or comments about: other users of this subreddit, the rules or moderators, the community at large or other subreddits, downvotes/upvotes.Ĩ. a movie title, or even a general topic (for example, a franchise, such as Star Trek). There is no formal spoiler protection for episodes/films after they have been available for approximately one week.ħ. On the iPhone's Home screen, tap iTunes Store. Spoilers: Utilize the spoiler system for any and all spoilers relating to the most recently-aired episodes, as well as previews for upcoming episodes. Don't derail a thread with unrelated comments.Ħ. Keep on topic: All submissions must be directly about the Star Trek franchise (the shows, movies, books etc.). Insulting or disparaging remarks about any human being is expressly not allowed.ĥ. Be nice: If a polite way cannot be found to phrase what it is you want to say, don't say anything at all. We are not a place for gossip, rumors, or manipulative or misleading content.Ĥ. Be truthful: All posts/comments must be factually accurate and verifiable. Be welcoming: It is important that everyone from newbies to OG Trekkers feel welcome no matter their gender, sexual orientation, religion or race.ģ. Be constructive: All posts/comments must contribute positively to r/StarTrek and the lives of those who participate here.Ģ. Listen to Star Trek Sound Effects (From the Original TV Soundtrack) by Douglas Grindstaff, Jack Finlay & Joseph Sorokin on Apple Music. Click here for the full & detailed guidelinesġ.
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![]() He currently resides in Washington, D.C.Ĭhapter 1. A graduate of the University of Pennsylvania and Stanford University, Glenn Singleton is a member of Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc. Glenn has been a guest lecturer at Harvard University and has instructed faculty, students and administrators at the University of Minnesota, New York University School of Medicine, and the LBJ School of Public Affairs at the University of Texas. For eight years, he served as an adjunct professor of educational leadership at San Jose State University. Embassy in Western Australia, and established the Courageous Conversation South Pacific Institute in Auckland, New Zealand. Glenn has trained law enforcement leaders with the U.S. He is also the founder and Board Chair of the Courageous Conversation Global Foundation, which develops partnerships to promote racial justice, interracial understanding and human healing worldwide. In 1995, Glenn founded the Foundation for A College Education and continues to serve on its Board of Advisors. Cited in the June 2018 edition of the Hollywood Reporter for his work with 21st Century Fox Animation, most recently, Glenn was awarded the AdWeek/AdColor 2020 Champion Award, and the 2020 National Speech and Debate Association Communicator of the Year Award. Coleman Excellence in Equity Award by the Connecticut State Education Resource Center. Along with W+K, he received the 2017 Most Valuable Partnership (MVP) Award by AdColor. Johnson Presidential Library and the Bill & Melinda Gates foundations. Glenn has consulted executives at Wieden + Kennedy (W+K) Advertising, Google, Amazon, Procter & Gamble, the New York Department of Education, the New Zealand Ministry of Education, the Stavros Niarchos, Lyndon B. He is the award-winning author of Courageous Conversations About Race A Field Guide for Achieving Equity in Schools, Second Edition and of MORE Courageous Conversations About Race. ![]() Glenn is the Founder and President of Courageous Conversation TM, an agency that guides leadership development in education, government, corporation, law enforcement, and community organizing. Author, thought leader, and strategist, he is the creator of Courageous Conversation a protocol and framework for sustained, deepened dialogue, and Beyond Diversity, the curriculum that has taught hundreds of thousands of people how to use it. Glenn Singleton has devoted over thirty years to constructing racial equity worldwide and developing leaders to do the same. It is your call to leadership-one that will impact student achievement and drive systemic transformation. This guide empowers you with practical tools and insights to successfully challenge racist policies and practice in schools and beyond. ![]()
![]() He also wrote that a tweet will now be called an "X," and noted that his X.com domain now redirects to Twitter. Over the weekend, Musk wrote that "soon we shall bid adieu to the twitter brand and, gradually, all the birds," and invited users to come up with a new logo. The branding change comes about three months after Musk officially replaced Twitter the company with a successor firm called X Corp. Musk is famously a fan of the letter X, applying it to everything from his companies to his children's names. Make your brand more recognizable: As Twitter fonts helps to increase followers therefore it helps to make your brand more recognizable.Twitter has replaced its longtime bird logo with an X in order to fit owner Elon Musk's preferred aesthetic.Attract more Twitter followers: By using different Twitter fonts in your tweets attracts the user attention and thus increases the chances of increasing your followers.Create an eye-catching profile: The Twitter font generator primary purpose is to help you make your tweets and profile attractive by using cool text font.Hit the "copy" button against the font that you like.Enter your normal Twitter text in the text area Box.View the website and choose Twitter fonts from the menu section.To change your Twitter font to other fancy text, follow these steps: How to change Twitter text to fancy text? Copy one of the Bold font generated bu this tool and paste it wherever needed. ![]() ![]()
![]() That is why when I figured out you could go and pick your own tree and have the house smell amazing, that was a turning point in this Christmas Lover’s Life!!! The joy that a Christmas tree brings into my life and home (and many people’s, I’m sure) is something that cannot be explained. Yes, it is true! No real Christmas Trees in a tropical country are used, nope! Fake trees for all. Real Christmas Trees – Though we have the tradition of decorating the house with lights, for which we often consider taking the help of expert technicians (similar to a Norwalk electrician), we never had the tradition of using real Christmas trees. So I had no idea about Rudolph and all the traditions around the reindeer until I moved here.Ħ. Reindeer – Somehow Santa at the mall had the velvet suit in the middle of the summer, but they seemed to have completely removed the reindeer from the picture. ![]() Stockings – We put our shoes either on the windows or by the door, no fireplace in a place where it’s 80 F in the winter, right? Santa comes to your window and leaves candy, nothing else.ĥ. Brazilians often bring the traditional desserts such as Pudim, Brigadeiro and other delicacies, but believe it or not, I never had a sugar cookie nor made one until I moved here!!!!Ĥ. Homemade Cookies – We never really had cookies on Christmas nor made gingerbread houses. Candy Canes – no, we never had candy canes in Brazil!!! One of my favorite things about Christmas! That sweet peppermint taste just makes Christmas even more special, do you agree?ģ. This is an example of the Brazilian title changed from the “Christmas Carol” to “The Ghosts of Scrooge”.Ģ. Honestly, some studios brought some of the classics to Brazil, but without the book tradition and growing up embedded in those stories, those movies mean nothing but entertainment. This movie franchise seems to be so popular here that people may even have researched all the characters, starting from Ms parker Friday to Craig Jones. ![]()
Your foot inverts or rolls out, stretching or tearing the ligaments and tendons on the outside of your ankle.Sudden pain and swelling at the time of injury.Rarely, surgery may result in incomplete healing of the fracture, which requires another surgery to repair.The most common ankle injury is a sprained ankle. In some cases, pressure exerted on the nerves can cause nerve damage, resulting in severe pain. Risks and complications that can occur with ankle fractures include improper casting or improper alignment of the bones which can cause deformities and eventually arthritis. What are the Risks and Complications of an Ankle Fracture? After 2-3 months of therapy, the patient may be able to perform normal daily activities. Physical therapy of the ankle joint will be recommended by the doctor. What is the Postoperative Care for an Ankle Fracture?Īfter ankle surgery, you will be instructed to avoid putting weight on the ankle by using crutches while walking for at least six weeks. The incision is then sutured closed and the operated ankle is immobilized with a splint or cast. With surgical treatment, the fractured bone is accessed by making an incision over the ankle area and then specially designed plates are screwed onto the bone to realign and stabilize the fractured parts. In non-surgical treatment, the ankle bone is realigned and special splints or a plaster cast is placed around the joint, for at least 2-3 weeks. Treatment starts with non-surgical methods, and in cases where the fracture is unstable and cannot be realigned, surgical methods are employed. The treatment of an ankle fracture depends upon the type and the stability of the fractured bone. Immediately following an ankle injury and prior to seeing a doctor, you should apply ice packs and keep the foot elevated to minimize pain and swelling. What are the Treatment Options for Ankle Fractures? In complex cases where detailed evaluation of the ligaments is required an MRI scan is recommended. This test is employed to check the stability of the fracture to decide if surgery is necessary or not. In some cases, pressure is applied on the ankle and then special X-rays are taken. Usually it is very difficult to differentiate a broken ankle from other conditions such as a sprain, dislocation, or tendon injury without having an X-ray of the injured ankle. The diagnosis of the ankle injury starts with a physical examination, followed by X-rays and CT scan of the injured area for a detailed view. Syndesmotic injury, also called a high ankle sprain, is usually not a fracture, but can be treated as a fracture.Trimalleolar fractures in which all three lateral, medial, and posterior bones are fractured.Bimalleolar fractures in which both lateral and medial malleolus bones are fractured.Posterior Malleolus fracture in which the posterior malleolus, the bony hump of the tibia, is fractured.Medial Malleolus fracture in which the medial malleolus, the inner part of the ankle, is fractured.Lateral Malleolus fracture in which the lateral malleolus, the outer part of the ankle, is fractured. ![]() ![]() The different types of ankle fractures are: What are the Types of Ankle Fractures?Īnkle fractures are classified according to their location. In cases of severe fracture, deformity around the ankle joint is clearly visible where bone may protrude through the skin. In some cases, blood may accumulate around the joint, a condition called hemarthrosis. ![]() With an ankle fracture, there is immediate swelling and pain around the ankle as well as impaired mobility. What are the Symptoms of an Ankle Fracture? What are the Common Causes of Ankle Fractures?Īnkle fractures occur from excessive rolling and twisting of the ankle, usually occurring from an accident or activities such as jumping or falling causing sudden stress to the joint. The ankle joint is stabilized by different ligaments and other soft tissues, which may also be injured during an ankle fracture. An ankle fracture is a painful condition where there is a break in one or more bones forming the ankle joint. Pain after ankle injuries can either be from a torn ligament and is called an ankle sprain or from a broken bone which is called an ankle fracture. What is an Ankle Fracture?Īnkle injuries are very common in athletes and in people performing physical work, often resulting in severe pain and impaired mobility. The joint is protected by a fibrous membrane called a joint capsule, and filled with synovial fluid to enable smooth movement. The ends of the fibula and tibia (lower leg bones) form the inner and outer malleolus, which are the bony protrusions of the ankle joint that you can feel and see on either side of the ankle. The ankle joint is composed of three bones: the tibia, fibula and talus, which are articulated together. ![]() In Teams, see your To Do tasks and Planner tasks alongside each other using the Tasks app. In To Do, select Assigned to you to see tasks assigned to you. The best part is that you can use To Do and Planner together, to compliment each other. In Teams, you can work on your plan right alongside team Posts and Files. Teammates will get notification of assignments and other events through Planner notifications, Groups notifications, Teams notifications, mobile notifications, and more depending on the context. Or select Schedule and drag and drop the task where you want it on the calendar. Select a task and add a Start date and Due date. Organize your team’s work visually using custom buckets.įilter and sort by date, assignments, and other preset values. Select + New Plan, enter a Plan name, select Create plan, and then select Members. Or, if your organization allows you to, create a new group: Select + New Plan and Add to an existing Office 365 Group. To work with a team, start with Planner in the browser, the mobile app, or in Teams. ![]() You can easily switch between personal or organizational accounts in the Windows or mobile apps and send push notifications to personal friends when you add a task on a personal list. Teremon Daily Planner 2023 - Undated To-Do List Notebook for Men & Women- 100 GSM PAPER Agenda 2023 Daily Planner - Perfect Appointment Book with 140 Pages (8.5 x 6. Select a list and then select Share to share the list with a teammate in an organization, or with family or friends using a personal account. In To Do, select My Day, select Today, and select the items you want to add to your My Day list. The task will appear in the Planned list and in Outlook for the web in the My Day pane. In Outlook, select the task, select Remind me, and select an option. In Outlook, select the flag, to have that email show up as a task in the Flagged email list. In To Do, select + Add a task to add a task directly in To Do. To work on individual tasks, or share lists, start with To Do. Share specific lists with teammates and friendsĬollaborate across Planner, Teams, and Outlook using Microsoft Groups Your organization has a Microsoft 365 subscription (business, enterprise, or education) Manage individual tasks across To Do, Outlook, and Planner The Tasks app provides notifications for Planner tasks which will show up in your Teams activity feed both on your desktop and in the Teams mobile app.Try it! When to use Microsoft To Do vs. Use these filters to find tasks, or to scope your view to more easily select a group of tasks to change. You can filter My tasks lists by due date and priority, and Shared plan can additionally be filtered by label, bucket, and assignment. Options can vary depending on the list you're viewing. You can also choose More options and then select Delete, Move task., or more. ![]() Press and hold the SHIFT key to select multiple consecutive tasks, or press and hold the CTRL key to select multiple nonconsecutive tasks.Ībove the tasks list, on the left, choose Progress, Priority, or Due date and choose an option. Select a task by clicking or tapping somewhere on the task that is not the Complete circle or the name of the task. To change several tasks at the same time, or do a "bulk edit", follow these steps. It also allows you to filter your tasks, which wasn't available to To Do previously. This is called List view, and allows you to change many tasks at once, which wasn't as possible in either To Do or Planner before. Rename the Teams tab for a plan (Tasks app will use this name)Ī unique feature of the Tasks app how it displays tasks and information associated with them in rows and columns. Note: To find out how to perform specific actions in Planner, see the Planner help and learning center. ![]() What’s more, their weighting poses (or, the position of the skeleton bones when the geometry is exported) are different. However, the shapes of the two bodies are quite different. xsf file in order to export geometry for both the male and female. The IMVU female and male avatar use the exact same skeleton. All of these files will come in handy later when using the Create Mode Editor.Ĭonsidering that completely new avatar products will not work across all Furniture, Rooms, Head and Action menu items, we will not be covering how to build your own entirely new avatar from scratch in these tutorials. These ZIP files contain a MAX file for use in 3DS MAX, textures that are applied to that file and a previously exported skeleton. To build new clothing, hairstyle and head geometry for the IMVU avatars, you need to begin with an avatar that is positioned in the ‘weighting pose’.Ī file for both the female and male avatar is supplied to the left. To learn how to add geometry in a Create Mode Editor, please go to the Meshes Tab Tutorial. While its true that building clothing is hard because you need to know how to model and map fairly well while, at the same time, you need to know how to use Physique fairly well, take comfort in the fact that thousands of IMVU content creators have done it. ![]() Therefore, the movement of, say, the shoulder really matters to your customers’ end experience. As humans, we’re programmed to notice even the most subtle differences in anatomy and movement of that anatomy.Customer expectation is that avatar skin will always be right so any deviation is viewed upon negatively. There are hundreds of thousands of preexisting products that define how an avatar’s skin is supposed to be out.The two main reasons for this are simple: However, building clothing is hard as it requires a patience and technical exactness that most other product types do not require. You can make individual pieces of clothing, complete outfits or anything in between. In IMVU, you can replace the default avatar clothing with clothing of your own design. ![]() Treaty of Wichale, Wichale also spelled Ucciali, (May 2, 1889), pact signed at Wichale, Ethiopia, by the Italians and Menilek II of Ethiopia, whereby Italy was granted the northern Ethiopian territories of Bogos, Hamasen, and Akale-Guzai (modern Eritrea and northern Tigray) in exchange for a sum of money and the … Who was Degiat Bahta Hagos?ĭegiat Bahta Hagos (whose horse was also known as Aba T’mer) was killed while fighting against the Italian Colonial Army on december 19, 1894. … Ethiopia also has a special status from a religious perspective. The source of the Nile with its gigantic waterfalls is also located here. With mountains over 4,500 meters high, Ethiopia is the roof of Africa. It has the largest population of any landlocked country in the world. Hebrew Kush The name Ethiopia (Hebrew Kush) is mentioned in the Bible numerous times (thirty-seven times in the King James version), and is in many ways considered a holy place. The ancestry of Afroasiatic-speaking Ethiopians and Eritreans is primarily that of indigenous East Africans, but it also has a significant contribution from Eurasian populations as the result of a back migration (1500-3500 years ago). Read More: What are the parts of a bell called? What race are Ethiopians? United Arab Republic Syria Jordan Iraq Lebanon United Arab Republic (1958–1971) Conflict The conflict resulted in an unequivocal Ethiopian victory that guaranteed Ethiopia’s continued independence in the years immediately preceding the Scramble for Africa. It remains the only war between Egypt and Ethiopia in modern times. The so-called Ethiopian dynasty-the 25th-which came from the south to rule Egypt in 716–656 bc, has sometimes been used in an attempt to prove an even closer connection between Egypt and Ethiopia, but these invaders came in fact from Nubia (Cush). Evidence suggests that Emperor Yohannes had acted rashly and had made himself vulnerable, going beyond enemy lines in a range of enemy shots as victory was going to his side. ![]() Mahdist Sudanese Yohannes was killed by Mahdist Sudanese at the Battle of Gallabat that took place on 9–10 March 1889 in Metemma near the Sudanese border. Who is Ras Hagos?īahta Hagos (Ge’ez: ባህታ ሓጎስ), died December 19, 1894, was Dejazmach of Akkele Guzay, and retrospectively considered an important leader of Eritrean resistance to foreign domination specifically against northern Ethiopian and Italian colonialism. Is Ethiopia a republic?Įthiopia is a Federal Democratic Republic composed of 9 National Regional States (NRS) – Tigray, Afar, Amhara, Oromia, Somali, Benishangul-Gumuz, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region (SNNPR), Gambella and Harari – and two administrative councils – Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa. He would appoint then Shaleqa Alula as the Ras of those areas of this region under imperial authority. The victory helped Emperor Yohannes solidify his control over the Ethiopian Empire broadly, and control over the Mareb Melash specifically. What were the consequences of the battle of Gundet and Gura? He was one of the most important leaders of the Ethiopian Empire’s forces during the 19th century. When Yohannes returned from his unsuccessful campaign in Saati, he invaded and ravaged Gojjam for King Tekle Haymanot Tessema’s rebellious intentions.Ra’isi Alula Engida (Ge’ez: ራእሲ አሉላ እንግዳ) (1827 – 15 February 1897 also known by his horse name Abba Nega and by Alula Qubi) was a Tigrayan general and politician who successfully led Ethiopian battles against Italy. In all the above fighting Ras Alula negatively shamed his enemies and made his people proud. In service of the Emperor Yohannes IV, Ras Allula successfully defeated the Egyptians in Gundet 1875, Gura 1876, Aylet 1887, Senhit 1880, against the mahdists of Sudan, kufit 1885, Metema 1889 against Italians, Sahati 1887, Dogali 1887, Amba-Alaje 1889, Mekelle 1896 and Adwa 1896. He led many battles for the independence of Ethiopia, including Dogali and Adwa. Described by Haggai Erlich as the greatest leader whom Abyssinia produced since the death of Emperor Tewodros II in 1868, Ras Alula was referred to by Europeans as “the Garibaldi of Abyssinia”. He was one of the important leaders of the Ethiopian Empire’s forces during the 19th century. ![]() Ras Alula Engida (Ge’ez: ራስ አሉላ እንግዳ?) (1827 – 15 February 1897 also known by his horse name Abba Nega and by Alula Qubi) was an Ethiopian general and politician. Olympic Committee’s athlete of the month accolades in the process. In April, he set new American records for a double below-knee amputee in the 100m (11.31 seconds), 200m (21.98) and 400m (51.97), earning the U.S. He’s been living at the Olympic Training Center in Chula Vista, Calif., since 2010, taking two years off from college to focus on the upcoming Paralympic Games in London. “And Blake doesn’t do anything quietly.”Ĭruz’ patience is paying huge dividends, but so is Leeper’s dedication. “Until about four months ago, Blake was throwing up during every workout-he would go so hard on the first interval and then throw up over and over again,” Cruz says followed by a long pause and a smile. It took a while to mold Leeper into shape, but he’s made huge progress in a short amount of time. “I wanted to impress Coach Cruz and go as hard as I could on every repeat,” Leeper laughs. When a workout was supposed to be five 200m repeats with a moderate rest interval, Leeper had no idea how to pace himself and simply ran as fast as he could. He tried that tactic on the track, but dearly paid the price. During his basketball days, he went all-out all the time. At the beginning, Leeper was undertrained, not entirely motivated and, as a result, a bit lost. He feels it takes a track athlete six to eight years to really learn how to train correctly. Blake was more interested in meeting girls and having fun than running track.”įortunately, Cruz is a patient man. “Was it 80 percent? Or 50 percent? At least he was honest. “I’d ask him to tell me what percentage of the workouts he had actually done,” Cruz says. Olympic Training Center in Chula Vista, Calif., though, there was no hiding his lack of conditioning. Then he took second in the 200m, and I was like, ‘whoa, this kid is special.’ I could tell right away that Blake had something the other kids didn’t.”Īfter the meet in Brazil, Cruz started emailing workouts to Leeper-who was then studying applied physics the University of Tennessee with the hopes of developing high-performance prosthetics-but Leeper wasn’t very good about doing them. He took third in the 100m on just raw talent. “It was his first time out of the country and he was scared. “We met for the first time on that trip,” Cruz remembers. Cruz, a two-time Olympic medalist at 800m and one of the world’s most decorated track athletes of the 1980s, knew Leeper was a diamond in the rough, but he also knew Leeper’s talents would be lost without proper training or dedication. Paralympic track and field team since 2005. It also landed him in the capable hands of Joaquim Cruz, the coach of the U.S. Paralympic track team that would be competing in an international meet in Rio De Janeiro, Brazil where he’d truly start to realize the potential of his emerging talent. ![]() Those performances earned him a spot on the U.S. He blitzed the 100m field that day in 11.95 seconds and also went on to win the 200m (25.44) and the 400m (56.79) in the same afternoon. “Being my first track meet, my main goal was not falling down and making that 14-hour drive back home a whole lot longer.” “My main concern was not disappointing my family,” he admits. All he knew is that he wanted to run fast. Not only had he never run in a track meet before, Leeper had never seen one in person. ![]() “We saw that the Endeavor Games were coming up so the thought was ‘Go big or go home,’” Leeper recalls. Although he had been using prosthetics since he was 9 months old, he was never the type of kid to ease into anything. Leeper was born without feet, ankles and lower leg bones, and had his legs amputated to the knee shortly after he was born. He had played basketball and baseball as a kid and even played varsity basketball in high school, but it wasn’t until he received a pair of top-of-the-line prosthetic running legs, courtesy of the Challenged Athletes Foundation and the manufacturer, a small Icelandic company called Ossur, that track and field ever crossed Leeper’s radar. ![]() Leeper, along with his mom, dad and older brother, had driven 14 hours from their home in Church Hill, Tenn., to Edmund, Okla., to see if he had a future in this new sport. The 19-year-old double below-knee amputee had traveled 950 miles to get to the 2009 Endeavor Games, but he had no idea at the time the 100 meters that lay in front of him offered the opportunity to take him on an even greater journey. Three years ago, under the hot Oklahoma sun, Blake Leeper crouched down in his starting blocks with something to prove. 22-year-old American Paralympian Blake Leeper is on a fast track to sprinting success. ![]() I also discuss non-empirical investigations of models that I call robustness and sensitivity analyses. Although it is invariance rather than stability of generalizations that furnishes us with explanatory generalizations, there is an important function that stability has in this context of explanations, namely, stability furnishes us with extrapolability and reliability of scientific explanations. The more stable a generalization, the less dependent it is on background conditions to remain true. Stability deals with a generality that has to do with holding of a generalization in possible background conditions. A generalization can be invariant and explanatory regardless of its lawlike status. Whether a generalization remains invariant during its interventions is the criterion that determines whether it is explanatory. An invariant generalization continues to hold or be valid under a special change called an intervention that changes the value of its variables. I will claim that there are generalizable and reliable causal explanations in ecology by generalizations, which are invariant and stable. I investigate and analyze such properties of generalizations as lawlikeness, invariance, and stability, and I ask which of these properties are relevant in the context of scientific explanations. The question at issue in this dissertation is the epistemic role played by ecological generalizations and models. This suggest that there might be nothing special about the biological sciences vis-à-vis the more fundamental natural sciences, such as physics insofar as explanations of exceptions are concerned, and that the biological sciences can provide reliable and extrapolatable results or explanations by themselves. I also discuss and refute more general arguments why the idea of lower-level explanations of exceptions has been held to hold in the special sciences, such as the screening-off and openness arguments. ![]() I present counterexamples to the idea of lower-level explanations of exceptions in biology. The idea of lower-level explanations of exceptions is connected to the idea that the biological sciences need lower-level sciences to better themselves and to the idea that biological sciences cannot provide reliable and extrapolatable results or explanations by themselves. I will discuss the traditional and still almost universally held idea that the biological sciences cannot deal with exceptions and application conditions of their generalizations with their own distinctive and proprietary explanantia, but need the help of lower-level sciences to carry out this task. This special status of biology is used as a premise in arguments that posit a deprived explanatory, nomological, or methodological status in the biological sciences. It is often argued that biological generalizations have a distinctive and special status by comparison with the generalizations of other natural sciences, such as that biological generalizations are riddled with exceptions defying systematic and simple treatment. Key words: evolutionary contingency thesis generative entrenchment laws multiple realization ![]() Finally, I discuss the possibility of evolution producing repeatable and general non-lawlike regularities and patterns by utilizing the notion of generative entrenchment and by criticizing the thesis of multiple realizability of biological properties. Fourth, I develop a counterexample to Beatty’s thesis. Third, I argue that Beatty and his commentators have focused on the more ineffective trajectory stability version of the argument, whereas the constancy stability version provides a more substantial and applicable argument against the existence of biological laws. Second, Beatty’s two different versions of strong contingency are analyzed in terms of two different stabilities of regularities. First, I argue that in Beatty’s thesis there are two versions of strong contingency used as arguments against biological laws that have gone unnoticed by his commentators. ![]() The best argument for the contingency of biological regularities is John Beatty’s evolutionary contingency thesis, which will be re-analyzed here. The contingency of biological regularities – and its implications for the existence of biological laws – has long puzzled biologists and philosophers. |
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